Monday, January 29, 2018

3347. A chihuahua jumps from the bed daily - r patellar luxation 2 days ago


Jan 29, 2018
Referral to Toa Payoh Vets for 2nd opinion 
Vet 1 did X-rays. Diagnosed Grade 3 patellar luxation.


8-year-old chihuahua
Jumps off bed daily - for past 8 years

Had been lame for a year
Overweight BCS 5/9

Advice
Grade 3. Dog can put RH paw on ground after putting patella in.
Heart and lungs OK. Abdomen OK. 
Apprehensive about anaesthesia.
To reduce weight for 4 weeks and see.



--------------------------better quality X-rays of another case



3346. A 16-year-old Jack Russell salivates profusely - nerve disease?





Jan 13, 2018

Jack Russell, FS, 15 years
hypersalivating only on right side of mouth. Why?

MUSCLE ATROPHY ON RIGHT SIDE MUSCLES BELOW ZYGOMATIC ARCH


EYE PUPILS
Pupillary reflex. R pupil constricts. L pupil dilates when bright light is shone.

Ulcer of 2 cm on R side of tongue, caudal edge.  R buccal mucosa ulcerations 

HISTORY
April 2018. Dental by Vet 1 .
Nov 2018. Not able to lap water from bowl. Water bottle OK
Drinks little

BLOOD TEST ON JAN 13, 2018
Urea  9.1  (4.2-6.3)
Creatinine 49  (89-177)
Platelets 595  (200-500)




Jan 13, 2018


No salivating only on right side of mouth. Some bubbles seen in right tonsillar area on GA examination.

MUSCLE ATROPHY ON RIGHT SIDE MUSCLES BELOW ZYGOMATIC ARCH


EYE PUPILS
Normal

Ulcer of 2 cm on R side of tongue, caudal edge.  R buccal mucosa ulcerations 

HISTORY
April 2018. Dental by Vet 1 .
Nov 2018. Not able to lap water from bowl. Water bottle OK
Drinks little
Treated at Toa Payoh Vets on Jan 13, 2018. Antibiotics and anti-inflam, neurobion.

BLOOD TEST ON JAN 27, 2018
Urea  13.5  (4.2-6.3)
Creatinine 87  (89-177)
Platelets  316  (200-500)


Was dental scaling done by Vet 1 the cause of the muscle atrophy?

Sunday, January 28, 2018

3345. A 9-year-old female spayed Shih Tzu passes cloudy vaginal discharge

The couple was concerned about this cloudy discharge seen "once" recently.

Lab tests done.


Also liver disorder

Thursday, January 25, 2018

3343. INTERN Femoral fractures in 2 Singapore apartment cats




High rise Singapore apartments
More than 80% of population live in apartments.
No wired netting in windows in most apartments with cats - cat jump off windows and fractures legs or dies from internal injuries





Case 1. A 4-month-old kitten fell down from the apartment










WEEK 4. Plaster of Paris removed








WEEK 10. Pin removed. Kitten can now bend knee but it is painful.


3342. Veterinary Surgery Stories: The breeder never forgets what the vet did to his dam

Jan 23, 2018


Veterinary Surgery Stories from Dr Sing Kong Yuen, Toa Payoh Vets
- The breeder never forget what the vet did to his dam


"8 puppies dead after Caesarean section," the breeder showed me his mobile phone image of a dam and 8 dead puppies. He was not going back to this vet for any surgery. He did not know what had happened but he expected no deaths of the dam and puppies in any Caesarean section. He was 85 years old and had been breeding dogs for over 40 years. Still active working hard when other breeders have retired and had knowledge of the competence of various vets performing Caesarean sections for him.  .

I had performed over 10 Caesarean sections for him without deaths of the dam and pups in the past 2 years. So he was satisfied with me though he tried to knock down my fees by saying: "I can get 3 to 4 Caesarean sections done by the other vet for the fee I pay you!"

Some 15 years ago, I was like the other vet, charging $300 for any Caesarean section of the breeder's dog at any time of the day and night. The usual vet was suspended from practice for around 10 months for selling vaccines to breeders who would do their own vaccinations. One big breeder used my services and others followed. I had performed over 200 Caesarean sections in around 3 years till a younger vet was favoured by the breeders.

I could devote more time to my private clients and had more sleep after midnight. On Jan 23, 2018, I was awake as I had been to a friend's house for dinner. The friend had an electrical blackout and it took time to locate the source in an external wall light being exposed to rain water. So, this breeder's phone call to me was received as I drove home.

"I was going to bed after delivering a second Dachshund pup naturally," he said. "I saw this Dachshund straining very hard. Her water bag had ruptured but no pups came out for more than an hour."

He had given 0.5 ml oxytocin but no pups came out. So he played safe and phoned me. I did the Caesarean section for him. The 2 pups were large. He was pleased that the spotted one was female. This Dachshund had a large single pup delivered by Caesarean section by me one year ago. Now, she could not give birth naturally and her swollen belly gave me the impression she had 4 pups or 6 pups. She had 2 large ones.








What the breeder expects is a happy outcome: "No deaths of the dam and pups."
I use solely isofluranne gas and achieve this outcome.
A good veterinary assistant monitors the anaesthesia closely.

Wednesday, January 17, 2018

3339. A 30-month-old dwarf hamster has a large ear wart. What to do?

Jan 17, 2018

Internet query.
2.5 years old. Large wart. Sister worried. To operate or not, the lady emailed the image.
Much depends on her as the operation is less than 1 minute and gas anaethesia is very safe.
Cost? $150-$200. I asked her to email me the image.

The wart is irritating the hamster as evident by the clotted area due to scratching. Up to the owner to decide.


Friday, January 12, 2018

3338. A rare case of gangrenous swollen cheek in a Syrian hamster







A young lady WhatsApp this image to me. 
Needle aspiration. No pus or fluid. It was possible a sharp seed had penetrated and infected the left cheek.
Diagnosis: A gangrenous infected swelling/tumour.
Overgrown lower incisor teeth suggested long duration of swelling
Inoperable
Hamster passed away 4 days later

Tuesday, January 9, 2018

3337. Craniodorsal hip luxation of a poodle

Jan 9, 2018

Craniodorsal hip luxation is usually due to trauma. In this poodle, a helper stepped on the back, dislocating the left hip. Vet 1 tried closed reduction (without surgery) but the hip dislocated again. FHO (Femoral hip osteotomy) was recommended.

BEFORE  CLOSED REDUCTION







-----------------------------------------------------------------
AFTER CLOSED REDUCTION





FEMORAL HEAD OSTEOTOMY
IN THIS CASE

Blunt dissection of muscles
Expose femoral head more by using an assistant to abduct the joint
Bone cutter to cut off the femoral head
Create a false joint
Stitch up skin









-----------------------------------

Videos:
1.  A case of closed reduction in a Cavalier King Charles.
seen at Toa Payoh Vets





2. A Yorkshire Terrier has hip dislocation


3. A DETAILED EDUCATIONAL HIP DISLOCATION VIDEO


1.     A Shih Tzu has hip dislocation - rare case of caudoventral dislocation

Video from a Maltese owner some weeks after FHO surgery. Dog is almost normal in movement of hind leg.


A Border Collie has hip dislocation comes to Toa Payoh Vets.
Had successfully recovered after FHO but video is not shown here




A Border Collie after FHO. Owner happy with outcome when I saw the Collie over a year later.




A poodle has hip dislocation. Had sling bandage

A poodle X-ray subluxation



A cat dislocates left hip. Sling



Cavalier King Charles owner want the Sling




Cavalier King Charles lame



Monday, January 8, 2018

3336. Mushrooms - seen by me in Singapore

Jan 8, 2018

INTRODUCTION
Images below are From:
http://bcmushrooms.forrex.org/ntfp/pages/introduction.html










































In 1999, Wills and Lipsey identified a group of provincial non-timber forest products (NTFP) and services, including wild mushrooms, that can be commercially harvested from forests and other habitats for culinary or reputed nutriceutical purposes. The wild mushroom harvest alone contributes millions of dollars to the provincial economy. The pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare), is by far the most valuable commercially harvested mushroom. Other valuable edible mushrooms are the chanterelles, morels, lobsters, boletes, cauliflowers and hedgehogs. Pine mushrooms are exported exclusively to Japan, while chanterelles and other wild mushrooms are exported primarily to Europe and other parts of North America. Medical research, predominantly from Asia, suggests that many compounds derived from mushrooms prevent illnesses or boost human health. The demand for wild mushrooms is, therefore, expected to increase. Biological, taxonomical and ecological information on mushrooms that are currently (or could potentially be) harvested commercially is scattered throughout various scientific and technical publications. Developing an understanding of these wild mushrooms can be an arduous task for someone with limited mycological training. People with minimal mycological experience who are involved in the wild mushroom harvest -- pickers, sellers, buyers, foresters, managers, ecologists and naturalists -- require a concise, user-friendly mushroom information source. This web site seeks to bring together such scientific and technical information on our province's edible wild mushrooms.
Mushroom Biology
A mushroom is the above ground fruiting body of a fungus. Unlike plants, fungi do not manufacture their own food but must absorb their food from an external source. They obtain their food in three ways, as:
  • saprophytes that live off dead organic material;
  • symbionts that form mutually beneficial; relationships with living organisms
  • parasites or pathogens that infect live off living organisms.
Many forest mushrooms form symbiotic relationships known as mycorrhizae with tree roots. Mycorrhizal mushrooms are critical to the health of their hosts. Saprophytes included on this web site decompose organic matter such as decaying wood, forest litter and other plant material. Parasitic mushrooms included here are pathogens that either cause butt or root rots of conifer and deciduous trees or infect and actually 'feed off' other mushrooms.
All mushrooms have at least two parts to their life cycle: (1) a vegetative stage dedicated to growth and (2) a reproductive stage (fruiting bodies) dedicated to spore production. The vegetative stage is composed of filamentous threads known as hyphae through which water and nutrients move throughout the fungus. Under ideal conditions, hyphae grow rapidly and form a complex intricate network known as the mycelium. When environmental conditions are suitable, the mycelium forms fruiting bodies that come in a variety of shapes, sizes, colours, tastes and odours. Mushrooms are fruiting bodies formed above ground while truffles form fruiting bodies below ground. Typical mushrooms have caps (pilei), gills (lamellae) and stalks (stipes) that vary greatly in form. Mushrooms belonging to the Basidiomycetes produce spores on sexual structures called basidia that are found underneath the cap on gills, folds or veins, pores or tubes, or in spines or teeth (see illustration below). The fertile layer or tissue is called the hymenium. Mushrooms belonging to the Ascomycetes, such as morels, produce their spores inside sac-like structures called asci. Spores are dispersed to new habitats by wind, water, air currents and animals that eat the fruiting bodies. Basidia, asci and spores are microscopic structures. Spore shape, size and chemical reactivity are important characters used to identify mushrooms.
Mushroom Names
We include both scientific and common names of mushrooms. Scientific (or Latin) names are used because they are the same no matter what the spoken language may be and their binomial name can help indicate relationships among similar species. Some morphological species are difficult to differentiate und field conditions and molecular analysis is increasingly being used to separate species. These tests are revealing unexpected relationships among traditional species groups. As a result, species concepts are changing, with species transferred between genera, and genera between families. New genera and families are being erected, even as previously used family and generic names are disappearing. With each transfer, the scientific name changes. Synonyms are previously used names that reflect where earlier scientists have classified the mushroom. For instance, the pine mushroom of B.C. was at one time called Armillaria ponderosa and Tricholoma ponderosa, but taxonomists have determined that pine mushrooms belong to the genus Tricholoma and nomenclatural rules dictate that the first named species –– in this case magnivelare –– is the valid name and must be used. Each mushroom’s description includes its synonyms.
We also include the etymology or history of the scientific name for each species because it can help us to remember the Latin name. For instance, the Latin root ‘lact’ means ‘milk’ in English, which helps us remember that any mushroom name including “lact” in its name will probably exude a milk–like liquid when cut.

Common names reflect regional and local preferences. Over time, various people have coined vernacular names for a variety of different reasons. Some common names stick, others don’t, and rarely do such names reflect similarities or affinities among or within groups. Nonetheless, they can be useful so we present both the preferred common name as well as the more common Latin synonyms.

Mushroom Identification
No web site can substitute for training in mushroom identification. Some mushrooms in B.C. are deadly poisonous, others are moderately poisonous and others are safe to eat for most people. Some edible mushrooms cause negative reactions in some people. So it is important to never eat mushrooms that haven’t been correctly identified.
All species descriptions are based on fresh specimens and are organized by features of the cap, hymenium and stalk. Pertinent micro-features such as spore color, shape, and size, shape of basidia, presence of clamp connections, etc., are also included.
Macroscopic Features
Cap (Pileus)
Diameter of both the button and mature caps are measured. The variations among the most common cap shapes are presented below. Surface texture is described as being smooth, furry, fibrillose, scaly, sticky, slimy, cracking, or splitting (especially towards the margins). Colour and any colour changes should be noted and described using a standard colour chart. After mature and immature caps are cut, their texture, colour, bruising colour changes, and width at the stalk apex as well as at the base should be described.




Taste and Odour
Tastes and odours of fresh mushrooms can be distinctive and help identify a mushroom, so taste and odours of fresh specimens should be noted. Be aware that some mushrooms are deadly poisonous, so do not swallow tissues of unknown mushrooms. [Taste and “spit”!]


Gills, Folds, Veins, Pores, Tubes or Spines (Hymenium)
The gills, folds, pores or spines are attached to the stalk in a variety of ways (see illustrations below). Spacing, depth, nature of the edge and branching pattern are all described, as are the colour of gills in both button and mature mushrooms as well as any colour changes.



Stalk (Stipe)
Not all mushrooms have stalks, but if they do, the length (from apex to base) as well as the width (both at the apex and and at the base) are measured. Other features noted include the stalk’s shape, its surface texture, its colour, and the texture and colour of the context (the flesh or internal tissue). If a ring (annulus) and basal cup (volva) are present, they are described.


Microscopic Features
Spores
Spore prints are key aids in identifying mushrooms. Separate a mature cap from the stalk and place it on white or black paper with the hymenium facing down, so that spores collect on the paper. Place the cap and paper inside a lightly covered container and leave outside in ambient temperatures for 12–24 hours. Note the spore print colour (without magnification) to help identify and classify the mushroom. To examine the spores microscopically, place the hymenium tissue on a microscope slide in water or Melzer’s reagent and cover with a glass cover slip before examining under the microscope. Measure and examine the spores. Spores are placed in Melzer’s reagent because the spores’ reaction helps in mushroom identification. Sometimes, to identify unknown specimens, additional reagents such as cotton blue are used as an aid to precise identification.
Other Features
Clamp connections, which are connecting cells between two adjoining hyphal cells, occur only in fungi belonging to the Basidiomycetes. The presence or absence of clamp connections can assist in identifying mushrooms in this group.
The length of the basidia or asci and the number of spores produced by them also help to identify some mushrooms.
Hymenial cystidia are sterile cells interspersed among the basidia in the hymenium, and their presence or absence can also be important. When they are present, their shape and size are very helpful in indentifying mushrooms.
Mushroom Habitats and Habits
Habitat includes the ecological setting in which a mushroom is most likely to be found. This includes the host trees or host substrates as well as the surrounding vegetation. Some mushrooms can colonize a wide range of substrates such as dead wood or twigs or hosts, while others are very specific to certain substrates or hosts. For instance, Boletus mirabilis, the admirable bolete, forms ectomycorrhizae only with western hemlock, while Tricholoma magnivelare, the pine mushroom, colonizes a variety of conifer trees. Likewise, some saprophytic mushrooms decompose a wide range of woody hosts, while others decompose very specific woody hosts. Some saprophytes decompose forest litter, while others decompose organic matter in pastures, lawns or disturbed areas.
The vast majority of B.C. NTFP mushrooms fruit in the autumn, although some fruit only in the spring. Others may fruit throughout the year, weather permitting. It is important to know in which season a mushroom fruits when hunting for a specific mushroom. Fruiting itself is triggered by such environmental factors as moisture and temperature. Fruiting patterns of specific mushrooms vary, as some fruit singly, others fruit in troops and still others form clusters. On this website, we provide the fruiting habit of each mushroom.

Distribution Maps
The distribution map for each species is based on collection areas confirmed from personal and herbarium collections and published reports. There are undoubtedly parts of the province where some species occur but which are not yet included in these maps. As more data are added, these distribution maps will more accurately reflect the entire range and distribution of each species.
Interesting Facts
Mushrooms have been part of human civilizations for centuries. One of the earliest records of mushroom use was the case of Otzi, the Tyrolean Iceman, who was frozen in ice but not discovered until 1991 in the Italian Alps. Otzi lived 5,000 years ago and was carrying three different mushrooms when he died. The fungi had laxative and antibiotic properties, and scientists speculate that Otzi used the fungi to cure his stomach parasites. In Asia, mushrooms have been used for centuries for culinary, medicinal, nutriceutical and aphrodisiacal purposes. Ancient Greeks and Romans welcomed thunderstorms because they believed that mushrooms appeared after lightning. There is a plethora of beneficial and unusual uses attributed to certain mushrooms, some of which we include in our treatment of individual species. We also provide unusual items of interest about each species. Some fungi have a livelier or longer history than others, so for some species there is an extensive section on interesting facts.
Disclaimer
No single test can determine the culinary, beneficial or toxic properties of a specific mushroom. As some mushrooms can be deadly poisonous, we emphasize that the only safe means of separating edible mushrooms from poisonous ones is the positive identification by an expert.

For over twenty centuries, Chinese doctors have used mushrooms and other fungi to cure many types of human diseases. These medicinal mushrooms have also been credited with the ability to promote health and boost the immune system. However, Western medicine is still struggling to confirm Eastern medicinal uses of mushrooms.

Many mushrooms produce both beneficial and toxic compounds; the same compound can have beneficial or detrimental effects depending on the amount consumed, how the mushroom is prepared, what other foods or beverages are consumed with it, and whether an individual is over-senstive to the active compounds. We neither confirm nor deny the actions attributed to individual mushroom compounds. Although we are aware of many incidences where people attribute their well being to a specific mushroom, we try to avoid repeating anecdotal evidence and cite only published scientific research with respect to the healing or other beneficial properties attributed to each species. We do direct the reader to published reports of the benefits of specific mushrooms after each species description.

Reference
Wills, R.M., and R.G. Lipsey, 1999. An economic strategy to develop Non-Timber Forest Products and Services in British Columbia. Forest Renewal BC Project No. PA97538-ORE. Final Report.
In 1999, Wills and Lipsey identified a group of provincial non-timber forest products (NTFP) and services, including wild mushrooms, that can be commercially harvested from forests and other habitats for culinary or reputed nutriceutical purposes. The wild mushroom harvest alone contributes millions of dollars to the provincial economy. The pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare), is by far the most valuable commercially harvested mushroom. Other valuable edible mushrooms are the chanterelles, morels, lobsters, boletes, cauliflowers and hedgehogs. Pine mushrooms are exported exclusively to Japan, while chanterelles and other wild mushrooms are exported primarily to Europe and other parts of North America. Medical research, predominantly from Asia, suggests that many compounds derived from mushrooms prevent illnesses or boost human health. The demand for wild mushrooms is, therefore, expected to increase. Biological, taxonomical and ecological information on mushrooms that are currently (or could potentially be) harvested commercially is scattered throughout various scientific and technical publications. Developing an understanding of these wild mushrooms can be an arduous task for someone with limited mycological training. People with minimal mycological experience who are involved in the wild mushroom harvest -- pickers, sellers, buyers, foresters, managers, ecologists and naturalists -- require a concise, user-friendly mushroom information source. This web site seeks to bring together such scientific and technical information on our province's edible wild mushrooms.
Mushroom Biology
A mushroom is the above ground fruiting body of a fungus. Unlike plants, fungi do not manufacture their own food but must absorb their food from an external source. They obtain their food in three ways, as:
  • saprophytes that live off dead organic material;
  • symbionts that form mutually beneficial; relationships with living organisms
  • parasites or pathogens that infect live off living organisms.
Many forest mushrooms form symbiotic relationships known as mycorrhizae with tree roots. Mycorrhizal mushrooms are critical to the health of their hosts. Saprophytes included on this web site decompose organic matter such as decaying wood, forest litter and other plant material. Parasitic mushrooms included here are pathogens that either cause butt or root rots of conifer and deciduous trees or infect and actually 'feed off' other mushrooms.
All mushrooms have at least two parts to their life cycle: (1) a vegetative stage dedicated to growth and (2) a reproductive stage (fruiting bodies) dedicated to spore production. The vegetative stage is composed of filamentous threads known as hyphae through which water and nutrients move throughout the fungus. Under ideal conditions, hyphae grow rapidly and form a complex intricate network known as the mycelium. When environmental conditions are suitable, the mycelium forms fruiting bodies that come in a variety of shapes, sizes, colours, tastes and odours. Mushrooms are fruiting bodies formed above ground while truffles form fruiting bodies below ground. Typical mushrooms have caps (pilei), gills (lamellae) and stalks (stipes) that vary greatly in form. Mushrooms belonging to the Basidiomycetes produce spores on sexual structures called basidia that are found underneath the cap on gills, folds or veins, pores or tubes, or in spines or teeth (see illustration below). The fertile layer or tissue is called the hymenium. Mushrooms belonging to the Ascomycetes, such as morels, produce their spores inside sac-like structures called asci. Spores are dispersed to new habitats by wind, water, air currents and animals that eat the fruiting bodies. Basidia, asci and spores are microscopic structures. Spore shape, size and chemical reactivity are important characters used to identify mushrooms.
Mushroom Names
We include both scientific and common names of mushrooms. Scientific (or Latin) names are used because they are the same no matter what the spoken language may be and their binomial name can help indicate relationships among similar species. Some morphological species are difficult to differentiate und field conditions and molecular analysis is increasingly being used to separate species. These tests are revealing unexpected relationships among traditional species groups. As a result, species concepts are changing, with species transferred between genera, and genera between families. New genera and families are being erected, even as previously used family and generic names are disappearing. With each transfer, the scientific name changes. Synonyms are previously used names that reflect where earlier scientists have classified the mushroom. For instance, the pine mushroom of B.C. was at one time called Armillaria ponderosa and Tricholoma ponderosa, but taxonomists have determined that pine mushrooms belong to the genus Tricholoma and nomenclatural rules dictate that the first named species –– in this case magnivelare –– is the valid name and must be used. Each mushroom’s description includes its synonyms.
We also include the etymology or history of the scientific name for each species because it can help us to remember the Latin name. For instance, the Latin root ‘lact’ means ‘milk’ in English, which helps us remember that any mushroom name including “lact” in its name will probably exude a milk–like liquid when cut.

Common names reflect regional and local preferences. Over time, various people have coined vernacular names for a variety of different reasons. Some common names stick, others don’t, and rarely do such names reflect similarities or affinities among or within groups. Nonetheless, they can be useful so we present both the preferred common name as well as the more common Latin synonyms.

Mushroom Identification
No web site can substitute for training in mushroom identification. Some mushrooms in B.C. are deadly poisonous, others are moderately poisonous and others are safe to eat for most people. Some edible mushrooms cause negative reactions in some people. So it is important to never eat mushrooms that haven’t been correctly identified.
All species descriptions are based on fresh specimens and are organized by features of the cap, hymenium and stalk. Pertinent micro-features such as spore color, shape, and size, shape of basidia, presence of clamp connections, etc., are also included.
Macroscopic Features
Cap (Pileus)
Diameter of both the button and mature caps are measured. The variations among the most common cap shapes are presented below. Surface texture is described as being smooth, furry, fibrillose, scaly, sticky, slimy, cracking, or splitting (especially towards the margins). Colour and any colour changes should be noted and described using a standard colour chart. After mature and immature caps are cut, their texture, colour, bruising colour changes, and width at the stalk apex as well as at the base should be described.




Taste and Odour
Tastes and odours of fresh mushrooms can be distinctive and help identify a mushroom, so taste and odours of fresh specimens should be noted. Be aware that some mushrooms are deadly poisonous, so do not swallow tissues of unknown mushrooms. [Taste and “spit”!]


Gills, Folds, Veins, Pores, Tubes or Spines (Hymenium)
The gills, folds, pores or spines are attached to the stalk in a variety of ways (see illustrations below). Spacing, depth, nature of the edge and branching pattern are all described, as are the colour of gills in both button and mature mushrooms as well as any colour changes.



Stalk (Stipe)
Not all mushrooms have stalks, but if they do, the length (from apex to base) as well as the width (both at the apex and and at the base) are measured. Other features noted include the stalk’s shape, its surface texture, its colour, and the texture and colour of the context (the flesh or internal tissue). If a ring (annulus) and basal cup (volva) are present, they are described.


Microscopic Features
Spores
Spore prints are key aids in identifying mushrooms. Separate a mature cap from the stalk and place it on white or black paper with the hymenium facing down, so that spores collect on the paper. Place the cap and paper inside a lightly covered container and leave outside in ambient temperatures for 12–24 hours. Note the spore print colour (without magnification) to help identify and classify the mushroom. To examine the spores microscopically, place the hymenium tissue on a microscope slide in water or Melzer’s reagent and cover with a glass cover slip before examining under the microscope. Measure and examine the spores. Spores are placed in Melzer’s reagent because the spores’ reaction helps in mushroom identification. Sometimes, to identify unknown specimens, additional reagents such as cotton blue are used as an aid to precise identification.
Other Features
Clamp connections, which are connecting cells between two adjoining hyphal cells, occur only in fungi belonging to the Basidiomycetes. The presence or absence of clamp connections can assist in identifying mushrooms in this group.
The length of the basidia or asci and the number of spores produced by them also help to identify some mushrooms.
Hymenial cystidia are sterile cells interspersed among the basidia in the hymenium, and their presence or absence can also be important. When they are present, their shape and size are very helpful in indentifying mushrooms.
Mushroom Habitats and Habits
Habitat includes the ecological setting in which a mushroom is most likely to be found. This includes the host trees or host substrates as well as the surrounding vegetation. Some mushrooms can colonize a wide range of substrates such as dead wood or twigs or hosts, while others are very specific to certain substrates or hosts. For instance, Boletus mirabilis, the admirable bolete, forms ectomycorrhizae only with western hemlock, while Tricholoma magnivelare, the pine mushroom, colonizes a variety of conifer trees. Likewise, some saprophytic mushrooms decompose a wide range of woody hosts, while others decompose very specific woody hosts. Some saprophytes decompose forest litter, while others decompose organic matter in pastures, lawns or disturbed areas.
The vast majority of B.C. NTFP mushrooms fruit in the autumn, although some fruit only in the spring. Others may fruit throughout the year, weather permitting. It is important to know in which season a mushroom fruits when hunting for a specific mushroom. Fruiting itself is triggered by such environmental factors as moisture and temperature. Fruiting patterns of specific mushrooms vary, as some fruit singly, others fruit in troops and still others form clusters. On this website, we provide the fruiting habit of each mushroom.

Distribution Maps
The distribution map for each species is based on collection areas confirmed from personal and herbarium collections and published reports. There are undoubtedly parts of the province where some species occur but which are not yet included in these maps. As more data are added, these distribution maps will more accurately reflect the entire range and distribution of each species.
Interesting Facts
Mushrooms have been part of human civilizations for centuries. One of the earliest records of mushroom use was the case of Otzi, the Tyrolean Iceman, who was frozen in ice but not discovered until 1991 in the Italian Alps. Otzi lived 5,000 years ago and was carrying three different mushrooms when he died. The fungi had laxative and antibiotic properties, and scientists speculate that Otzi used the fungi to cure his stomach parasites. In Asia, mushrooms have been used for centuries for culinary, medicinal, nutriceutical and aphrodisiacal purposes. Ancient Greeks and Romans welcomed thunderstorms because they believed that mushrooms appeared after lightning. There is a plethora of beneficial and unusual uses attributed to certain mushrooms, some of which we include in our treatment of individual species. We also provide unusual items of interest about each species. Some fungi have a livelier or longer history than others, so for some species there is an extensive section on interesting facts.
Disclaimer
No single test can determine the culinary, beneficial or toxic properties of a specific mushroom. As some mushrooms can be deadly poisonous, we emphasize that the only safe means of separating edible mushrooms from poisonous ones is the positive identification by an expert.

For over twenty centuries, Chinese doctors have used mushrooms and other fungi to cure many types of human diseases. These medicinal mushrooms have also been credited with the ability to promote health and boost the immune system. However, Western medicine is still struggling to confirm Eastern medicinal uses of mushrooms.

Many mushrooms produce both beneficial and toxic compounds; the same compound can have beneficial or detrimental effects depending on the amount consumed, how the mushroom is prepared, what other foods or beverages are consumed with it, and whether an individual is over-senstive to the active compounds. We neither confirm nor deny the actions attributed to individual mushroom compounds. Although we are aware of many incidences where people attribute their well being to a specific mushroom, we try to avoid repeating anecdotal evidence and cite only published scientific research with respect to the healing or other beneficial properties attributed to each species. We do direct the reader to published reports of the benefits of specific mushrooms after each species description.

Reference
Wills, R.M., and R.G. Lipsey, 1999. An economic strategy to develop Non-Timber Forest Products and Services in British Columbia. Forest Renewal BC Project No. PA97538-ORE. Final Report.